4.2.2: E.m.f and p.d (electromotive force and potential difference)

Okay so EMF and PD can get a little confusing as they’re very similar so i’ll try my best here:

Basically;

Potential difference is defined as the energy transferred from electrical energy to other forms per unit charge. The term is used when charged particles lose energy in a component (when work is being done by the electrons/charge carriers). It is measured in volts. One volt is the potential difference across a component when 1 joule of energy is transferred per unit charge: 1V = 1JC^-1. To determine p.d., use the equation: W=VQ. You can measure p.d. using a voltmeter. They are placed in a parallel formation in a circuit and should have a very very high resistance so no current passes through it when it is placed in the circuit.

Electromotive force is defined as the energy transferred from chemical energy (or another form) into electrical energy per unit charge. The term is used when charged particles gain energy (when work is being done on the electrons/charge carriers). It also is measured in volts. You also use a voltmeter to measure it. You also use W=VQ to measure it (but in this instance, it is W=EQ, where E is emf). See what I mean….they’re pretty similar:/

Nonetheless we can learn it ahaha. The energy transferred to or from the charges can be calculated using W=VQ=EQ. The amount of energy transferred depends on the size of the charge passing through the component and also the size of the p.d or emf.

Okay so there’s this bit about eV=0.5mv^2 in the spec that best fits in here if I explain the electron gun, so that’s what i’ll do…

Basically in an electron gun (a device that produces a narrow beam of electrons) a metal filament is heated by an electric current and the electrons gain kinetic energy (well, first they gain thermal energy then it turns into kinetic energy). Some gain enough kinetic energy to escape from the metal (thermionic emission). The anode has a small hole in it. The escaped electrons accelerate towards the anode (gaining more kinetic energy as they do). The electrons in line with the hole pass through, creating a beam of electrons with a specific kinetic energy.

The work done on an electron travelling in this beam (p.d.) is equal to e x V (eV, but do not get this mixed up with electron volts! that is a different thing, in this instance eV means elementary charge x the accelerating p.d.). The work done on the electron equates to its gain in kinetic energy. Therefore...

...provided the electrons have negligible kinetic energy at the cathode.

This means that the greater the p.d (eV), the greater the kinetic energy of the electrons.

4.2.1: Circuit symbols

tbh, just learn these...

Image source: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Physics/Electrons,_Waves_and_Photons/D.C._circuits

4.1.2: Mean drift velocity

Number density is the number of free charge carriers per unit volume. The higher the number density the better the electrical conductor. This is because the material has more free charge carriers per unit volume. 

Materials can be classified into insulators, semiconductors, and conductors depending on their number density.

Conductors have a number density of about 10^28 m^-3

Semiconductors have a number density of about 10^17 m^-3

Insulators have a number density of below around 10^17 m^-3

Semiconductors can carry the same current than conductors but the electrons need to move much faster. Computer semiconductors are made of silicon because electrons moving faster means the temperature increases

Mean drift velocity:

Mean drift velocity is the average velocity of electrons/charged particles in a  wire/medium. It can be calculated using the equation I = Anev

I = current

A = cross-sectional area

n = number density

e =elementary charge (1.6x10^-19 C)

v = mean drift velocity

From the above equation we can see that increasing the cross sectional area decreases the mean drift velocity. They are inversely proportional.

4.1.1: Kirchoff's first law

Charge must always be conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed and the amount of charge after an interaction must always equal the amount of charge before an interaction.

Kirchoff’s first law states that for any point in an electrical circuit the sum of currents into hat point always equals the sum of currents out of that point. 

Charge is the product of current and time. This law means that charge cannot be created or destroyed therefore the amount of charge carriers entering a point always equates to the amount of charge carriers leaving that point.

4.1.1: Charge and current

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. It is measured in amperes (amps) and is the amount of charge passing through a given point per unit of time (e.g one coulomb (unit of charge) is 1 amp second (As)).

You can use the equation Q = It for questions involving charge, current, and time.

To measure electric current we use an ammeter. They are placed in series so must have a very low resistance as a high resistance will greatly affect the value of current measured.

Electric charge is a physical property, a measure of how charged something (e. a particle) is - a charge carrier is simply a particle that has electric charge. They can be electrons (usually in metals) or ions (usually in electrolytes), for example. Charge can either be positive or negative, opposite charges attract (negative and positive) and the same charges repel each other (e.g positive and positive, or negative and negative). A charge of -1, or +3 that you may see on the periodic table, for example, is known as a relative charge. It means that element has a charge of -1e or +3e. e is a constant charge (it is the elementary charge, 1.6x10^-19C).

As mentioned above, charge is measured in coulombs.

A coulomb is the amount of electrical charge flowing past a point in one second when there is a current of one amp.

Electrons are negatively charged. It therefore follows that if an object gains electrons, it becomes more negatively charged and if an object loses electrons it becomes more positively charged (as removing negative charge is like misusing a minus, you plus it). You can determine the net charge on an object using the equation Q=ne (n= number of electrons). From this equation we can see that charge is quantised as it can only take values of e (the elementary charge). You cannot get an object with a charge of 0.5e as that would result in it having gained/lost 0.5 electrons and this is not possible as electrons are fundamental particles.

So, how do charged particles move through the medium they are in?

Well, in metals most electrons remain fixed to their atoms. However, there are a number of free/delocalised electrons. The positive ions do not move but the free electrons are free to move around the metal. When a negative charge is applied at one end/positive charge at the other, these free electrons will flow from the more negative pole to the more positive pole. This is because the are negatively charged and so repel the negative end. This induces a current as it is a flow of charged particles. To increase the current we must increase the rate of flow of charge. This can be done by increasing the amount of electrons tat cross a given point per second (e.g greater cross-sectional area), or by making the same number of electrons move faster (introduce a bigger negative pole).

Just a tiny bit more in this section…

Long ago before we knew about electrons and stuff, we thought things flowed in the positive to negative direction. Well, now we know that electrons flow from negative to positive. If something is referring to conventional current/flow, it means positive to negative. If something refers to electron flow, it means negative to positive.

Also, electrolytes are just liquids that can carry an electrical current (therefore, they must have charged particles inside them somewhere). Electrolytes are either ionic solutions or molten ionic compounds. In electrolytes current is a flow of IONS (there are no free electrons in electrolytes). A good example is NaCl (tale salt, sodium chloride) as it contains the cations (positive ions) Na⁺ and anions (negatively charged ions), Cl^2-. The anions (negative ions) are attracted to the positive electrode (the anode) and the cations (positive ions) are attracted to the negative electrode (the cathode). This movement of ions is a flow of charge meaning there is a current.